88-year-old Rebecca Latimer Felton of Georgia, the first woman to serve in the United States Senate. Appointed to fill a vacancy in a symbolic concession to the women's suffrage movement, Felton served for just twenty-four hours, from noon on November 21 to noon on November 22, 1922.

Aday, S., & Devitt, J. (2001). Style over substance: Newspaper coverage of Elizabeth Dole's presidential bid. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 6, 52-73

Alexander, D. (1995). The influence of gender beliefs in constructing candidate images. A dissertation at Syracuse University.

Alexander, D., & Anderson, K. (1993). Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 527-545.

Allen, C. (1990). Political campaigning: A new decade. Washington, DC: National Woman's Political Caucus.

Anderson, K. (1996). After suffrage: Women in partisan and electoral politics before the New Deal. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Anderson, K. V. (2002). From spouses to canddates: Hillary Rodham Clintion, Elizabeth Dole, adn the gendered office of U. S. president. Beasley, Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 5, 105-132.

Arneil, B. (1999). Politics and feminism, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Banducci, S. A., & Karp, J. A. (2000). Gender, leadership and choice in multiparty systems. Political Research Quarterly, 53, 815-848.

Banwart, M. C. (2002). Videostyle and webstyle in 2000: Comparing the gender differences of candidate presentations in political advertising and on the Internet. Unpublished doctoral disssertatoin, University of Oklahoma, Norman.

Banwart, M C., Bystrom, D. G., & Robertson, T. (2003). From the primary to the general election: A compartive analysis of candidate media coverage in mixed-gender 2000 races for govenor and U.S. Senate. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 658-676.

Barber, J. & Kellerman, B. (1985). Women in American politics. Prentice Hall.

Barker,-Plummer, B. (1995). News as a political resource: Media strategies and political identity in the U.S. Women’s Movement, 1966-1975. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12, 306-324.

Baxter, S, & Lansing, M. (1983). Women and politics: The visible majority. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Beasley, M. H. (1997). How can media coverage of women be improved. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 235-244). New York, Oxford University Press.

Beasley, V. B. (2002). Engendering democratic change: How three U. S. presidents discussed femal suffrage. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 5, 79-103.

Bendyna, M. E., Lake, C. (1994). Gender and voting in the 1992 presidential election. In E.A. Cook,, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.), The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 237-254). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Benze, J. G. & Declercq, E. R. The Importance of Gender in Congressional and Statewide Elections," Social Science Quarterly

Benze, J. G. & Declercq, E. R. (1985). Content of television political spot ads for female candidates. Journalism Quarterly, 12, 278-283, 288.

Berch, N. (1996). The "Year of the Woman" in context: a test of six explanations. American Politics quarterly, 24, 169-.

Berstein, A. G. (2000). The effects of message theme, policy explicitness, and candidate gender. Communication Quarterly, 48, 159-173.

Bernstein, R. (1986). Why are there so few women in the house? Western Political Quarterly, 39, 155-164.

Black, J. H., & Erickson, L. (2000). Similarity, compensation, or difference? A compaison of female and male office-seekers. Women and Politics, 21, 1-38.

Blankenship, J., Mendez-Mendez, S, Kang, J.G., & Giordano, J. (1986). Initial construction of Ferraro in newspaper editorials. Journalism Quarterly, 63, 378-382.

Blankenship, J., & Robson, D. A. (1995). The ‘Feminine Style’ in political discourse: An exploratory Essay. Communication Quarterly, 43, 353-366.

Bledsoe, T., & Herring, M. (1990). Victims of circumstances: Women in pursuit of political office. Political Science Review, , 213-224.

Bolce, L. (1985). The role of gender in recent presidential elections: Reagan and the reverse gender gap. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 15, 372-385.

Borrelli, M. (2001). Competing conceptions of the first ladyship: Public responses to Betty Ford's 60 Minutes interview. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 31, 397-414.

Bostdorff, D. M. (1998).Hillary Rodham Clinton and Elizabeth Done as running "Mates" in the 1996 campaign: Parallels in the rhetorical constraints of First Ladies and Vice Presidents. In R.E. Denton (Ed.) The 1996 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 199-227). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Bostdorff, D. M. (1991). Vice-presidential comedy and the traditional female role: An examination of the rhetorical characteristics of the Vice Presidency. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 55, 1-27.

Boxer, B. (1994). Stranger in the senate: Politics an the new revolution of women in America. National Press Books.

Braden, M. (1996). Women politicians and the media. Lexington, KY: The University of Kentucky Press.

Broder, D. (1987, Dec. 5). Conference on stereotypes and women candidates, sponsored by the Women’s Campaign Research Fund. Washington, D. C.

Brown, Cl., Heighberger, N. R., & Shocket, P. A. (1993). Gender-based differences in perceptions of male and female city council candidates. Women and Politics. 13, 1-17.

 Brown, M. E. (1997). Feminism and cultural politics: Television audiences and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Political Communication, 14, 255-270.

Buchanan, A. (1993). Women in politics. Pepperdine Law Review, 1156-1169.

Burden, B. C. (1999). Public opinion and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 237-250.

Burrell, B. (1997). Public opinion, the First Ladyship, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Garland.

Burrell, B. C. (1994). A Woman’s place is in the House: Campaigning for congress in a feminist era. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press.

Burrell, B. C. (1994). Party decline, party transformation and gender politics: The USA. In J. Lovenduski and P. Norris (Eds.), Gender and party politics (pp. 291-308). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Burrell, B. (1988). The political opportunity of women candidates for the U. S. House of Representatives in 1984. Women and Politics, 8, 51-68.

Burrell, B. (1987). Not a Cinderella story (success for women candidates in 1986). Campaigns and Elections, 7, 32-37.

Butler, J. (1995). Carol Moseley-Braun's Day to Talk about Race: A Study of Forum in the United States Senate. Argumentation and advocacy : the journal of the American Forensic Association. 32, 62 -

Bystrom, D. G. (in press). Media content and candidate viability: The case of Elizabeth Dole. In M. S. McKinney, D. G. Bysrom, L. L. Kaid, & D. B. Carlin (Eds.). Communicating politics: Engaging the pubic in democratic life. New York: Peter Lang.

Bystrom, D. G. (1995). Candidate gender and the presentation of self: The videostyles of men and women in U. S. senate campaigns. Dissertation completed at the University of Oklahoma. (Reviewed in Political Communication, 13, 487-489, 1996).

Bystrom, D. G., McKinnon, L. M., & Chaney, C. (1999). First Ladies and the fourth estate: Media coverage of Hillary Clinton and Elizabeth Done in the 1996 presidential campaign. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 81-95). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bystrom, D. G., & Miller, J. L. (1999). Gendered communication styles and strategies in campaign 1996: The videostyles of women and men candidates. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 293-302), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

Bystrom, D. G., Robertson, T. A. , & Banwart, M. C. (2001). Framing the fight: Analysis of media coverage of female and male candidates in primary races for governor and U.S. senate in 2000. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 1999-2013.

Campbell, K. K. (1998). The discursive performance of femininity: Hating Hillary. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 1, 1-19.

Campbell, K. K. (1996). The rhetorical presidency: A two-person career. In M. J. Medhurst (Ed.), Beyond the rhetorical presidency (pp. 179-195). College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.

Campbell, K. K. (1989). Man cannot speak for her: A critical study of early feminist rhetoric, Vol. 1 & 2. New York: Greenwood Press.

Campbell, K. K. (Ed.) (1993). Women public speakers in the United States, 1800-1925: A bio-critical sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Campbell, K. K. (Ed.) (1994). Women public speakers in the United States, 1925-1993: A bio-critical sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Cantor, D. W;., & Bernay, T. 1992). Women in power: The secret of leadership. Boston: Houghton.

Carlson, A. C. (1994). Defining womanhood: Lucretia Mott and the transformation of femininity. Western Journal of Communication, 58, 85-97.

Carlson, J. M., & Boring, M. K. (1981). Androgyny and politics: The effects of winning and losing on candidate image. International Political Science Review, 2, 481-491.

Carlson, T. (2001). Gender and Political Advertising across Cultures: A Comparison of Male and Female Political Advertising in Finland and the US. European Journal of Communication,16, 131-154.

Carpini, M., & Fuchs, E. R. (1993). The year of the woman: Candidates, voters and the 1992 elections. Political Science Quarterly,, 29-37.

Carroll, S. J. (1985). The career paths of elected women politicians: A review of the literature and research agenda. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for the American Woman and Politics.

Carroll, S. J. (1985). Political elites and sex differences in political ambition: A reconsideration. Journal of Politics, 47, 1231-1243.

Carroll, S. J. (1985). Women as political candidates in American politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Carroll, S. J., & Schreiber, R. (1997). Media coverage of women in the 103^rd Congress. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 131-148). New York, Oxford University Press.

Caudill, S. A. (1997). Contemporary women at the public podium: Media influence and the continued devaluing of women as speakers. Speaker and Gavel, 34, 26-38.

Chaney, C., Alvarez, R., & Nagler, J. (1998). Explaining the gender gap in the U.S. presidential elections, 1980-1992.Political Research Quarterly, 51, 311-339.

Chang, D., & Hitchon, J. (1997). Mass media impact on voter response to women candidates: Theoretical development. Communication Theory, 7, 29-52.

Cirksena, M. K., (1996). Sources of Access and Competence in women’s political persuading, 1994-1984. Communication Quarterly, 44, 227-245.

Clark, C., & Clark, J. (1986). Models of gender and political participation in the United States. Women and Politics, 6, 5-26.

Clift, E. & Brazaitis (2000). Madam President: Shattering the last glass ceiling. Scribner.

Coleman, L. B. (1994, April). Manipulating motherhood: A hermeneutic analysis of women candidates’ 1992 television ads. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago, IL.

Conover, P. J. (1988). Feminists and the gender gap. The Journal of Politics, 50, 965- .

Conway, M. M., Ahern, D. W., & Steuernagel, G. A. (1999). Women and public policy: A revolution in progress, 2nd ed.. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Conway, M. M., Steuernagel, G. A., & Ahern, D. W. (1997). Women and political participation: Cultural change in the political arena. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Cook. E. A. (1994). Voter response to women candidates. In E. A. Cook,, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.), The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 217-236). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Cook, E. A. (1993). Feminist consciousness and candidate preference among American women, 1972-1988. Political Behavior, 15, 227-246.

Cook, E. A., Thomas, S, & Wilcox, C. (Eds.) (1994). The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Corrigan, M. (2000). The transformation of going public: President Clinton, the First Lady, and health care reform. Political Communication, 17, 149-168.

Cos, G. C. , & Snee, B. J. (2001). "New York, New York": Being and creating identity in the 2000 New York senate race. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 2014-2029.

Costain, A. N., Braunstein, R., & Berggren, H. (1997). Framing the women’s movement. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 205-220). New York, Oxford University Press.

Cox, E. M. (1997). Women in modern American politics: A bibliography 1900-1995. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Crosby, B. (1988). Women, new images of leadership. Social Policy, , 40-45.

Danner, L., & Walsh, S. (1999). "Radical" feminists and the "Bickering" women: Backlash in U.S. media coverage of the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 16, 63-84.

Darcy, R., Welch, S., & Clark, J. (1987). Women, elections, and representation. New York: Longman.

Darcy, R., Welch, S. & Clark, J. (1994). Women in political office. In Githens, P. Norris, & J. Lovenduski. Different roles, different voices. New York: Harper Collins.

Daughton, S. M. (1995). Women's issues, women's place: Gender-related problems in presidential campaigns. In K. E. Kendall (Ed.), Presidential campaign discourse: Strategic communication problems. (pp. 221-240). Albany NY: State University of New York.

Daughton, S. M. (1994). Women’s issues, women’s issues, women’s place: Gender-related problems in presidential campaigns. Communication Quarterly, 42, 106-119.

DeRosa, K. L., & Bystrom, D. G. (1999). The voice of and for women in the 1996 presidential campaign: Style and substance of convention speeches. In L. L. Kaid and Bystrom, D. G. (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 97-111). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Devitt, J.(1999). Framing gender on the campaign trail: Women's exectutive leadership and the press. Washington DC: The Women's Leadership Fund.

Diamond, I., & Hartsock, N. (1981). Beyond interests in politics: A comment on Virginia Sapiro's "when are interests interesting: The Problem of Political Representation of Women." American Political Science Review, 75, 716-721.

Dinzes, D., Cozzens, M. D., & Manross, G. G. (1993). The role of gender in "attack ads": Revisiting negative political advertising. Communication Research Reports, 11, 67-75.

Dolan, K. (1997). Gender differences in support for women candidates: Is there a glass ceiling in American politics. Women & Politics, 17, 27-41.

Dow, B. J. (1994). Ann Willis Richards (1933-): A voice for political empowerment. Women public speakers in the United States. 1925-1993 (pp. 452-464). K. K. Campbell (Ed.) Westport, CT: Greeenbood.

Dow, B. J., & Tonn, M. B. (1993). "Feminine style" and political judgment in the rhetoric of Ann Richards. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 79, 286-302.

Duesrst-Lahti, G., & Kelly, R. M. (1995). Gender power, leadership, and governance,. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Duke, L.. L. (Eds) (1996). Women in politics: Outsiders or insiders? (2^nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Eagly, A., & Karau, S. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psycholgical Review, 109. 573-598.

Edwards, R. B. (1997). Angles in the machinery: Gender in American party politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era. Oxford Univ. Press.

Eisenstein. Z. (1994). The color of gender: Reimaging democracy. Berkeley: University of California.

Elshtain, J. B. (1974). Moral woman and immoral man: A consideration of the public-private split and its political ramifications. Politics and Society, 4, 453-474.

Elshtain, J. B. (1987). Feminist political rhetoric and woman's studies. In J. S. Nelson, A. Megill, & D. N. McCloskey (Eds.), The rhetoric of the human sciences: Language and argument in scholarship and public affairs, (pp. 319-340). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Ferguson, K. E. (2001). Women and grassroots organizing. Women and Politics, 22, 97-111.

Fitzpatrick, K. (1995, Oct./Nov.). Gender gap Politics: The Republican warning. Campaigns and Elections, 16, 25-6, 59.

Flora, C. B., & Lynn, N. B. (1974). Women and political socialization: Considerations of the impact of motherhood. In J. Jaquette (Ed.), Women in politics (pp. 37-43). New York: Wiley.

Fox R., & Smith, E. R. A. N. (1998). The role of candidate sex in voter decision-making. Political Psychology, 19, 405-415.

Fox, R. L. (1996). Gender dynamics in congressional elections. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Freeman, J. (1999). A room at a time: Women's entry into party politics from the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-1960s. Rowman & Littlefield.

Friedlander, J., Cook, B. W., Kessler-Harris, A., & Smith-Rosenberg, C. (Eds.) (1986). Women in culture and politics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Fox, R. L. (1999). Gender dynamics in congressional elections. Sage Public Administration Abstracts 26, no. 2

Fox, R. L. (1999) Gender Dynamics in Congressional Elections. Women & politics. 20, 109-

Francia, P. L., Herrnson, P. S., & Lucas, J. C. (2002). Is there a gender gap in campaign ethics? Campaign and Elections, 32, 45-47.

Gardetto, D. C. (1997). Hillary Rodham Clinton, Symbolic gender politics, and the New York Times: January-November 1992. Political Communication, 14, 225-240.

Genovese, M. A. (Ed.) (1993). Women as national leaders: The political performance of women a heads of government. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gertzog, I. (1995). Congressional women: Their recruitment, integration, and behavior, 2^nd Edition. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Gidengil, E., & Everitt, J. (2003). Talking tough: Gender and reported speech in campaign news coverage. Political Communication, 20, 209-232.

Gidengil, E.,& Everitt, J. (2000). Filtering the female: Television news coverage of the 1993 Canddian leaders' debates. Canadian Journal of Politcal Science, 36(3).

Gidengil, E., & Everitt, J. (1999). Metaphors and misrepresentation: Gendered mediation in news coverage of the 1993 Canadian leaders' debates. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 4, 48-65.

Githens, M., Norris, P., & Lovenduski, J. (1994). Different roles, different voices: Women and politics in the United States and Europe. New York: HarperCollins.

Goldenberg, , E. N., Traugott, M. W., & Kahn, K. F. (1987). Voter assessment of presidential and senatorial candidates. In J. Vermeer (Ed.), Campigns in the news: Mass media and congressionl elections. New York: Greenwood.

Golebiowska, E. A. (1999). Gender gap in political tolerance. Political Behavior, 21, 43-

Goodall, S. (1994). De/reconstructing Hillary: From the retro ashes of the Donna Reed fantasy to a ‘90s view of women and politics. In S.A. Smith (Ed.), Bill Clinton on stump, state, and stage: The Rhetorical road to the White House (pp. 163-186). Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press.

Gordon, A., Shafie, D. M., & Crigler, A. N. (2003). Is negative advertising effective for female candidates? An experiment in voters' use of gender stereotypes. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 8, 35-53.

Gordon, A. D. (1997). African American women and the vote, 1837-1965. Univ. of Massachusetts Press.

Greenberg, A. (1997). Divine inspiration: Women, religion and politics. Dissertation completed at the University of Chicago.

Gutgold, N. (2001). Managing rhetorical roles: Elizabeth Hanford Dole from spouse to candidate 1996-1999. Women and Language, 24, 29-36.

Halcli, A. & Reger, J. (1997). Strangers in a strange land: The gendered experiences of women politicians in Britain and the United States. In L. Richardson (Ed.), Feminist frontiers IV (pp. 457-471). New York: McGraw Hill.

Hall, A. (2000). "For Kentucky": The shared vision of Governor Martha Layne Collins. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 45-57). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Susan B. Hansen, S. B., (1997). Talking About Politics: Gender and Contextual Effects on Political Proselytizing. Journal of Politics, 59, 73-103.

Hansen, S. B. (1994). Lynn Yeakel versus Arlen Specter in Pennsylvania: Why she lost. In E. A. Cook, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.). The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 87-108). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Harrison, T. M., Stephen, T. D., Husson, W., & Fehr, B. J.. (1991). Images versus issues in the 1984 presidential election: Differences between men and women.. Human Communication Research, 18, 209-227.

Hartmann, S. (1989). From margin to mainstream: American women and politics since 1960. Templeton University Press.

Hedlund, R. D., Freeman, P. K., Hamm, K. E., & Stein, R. M. (1979). The electability of women candidates: The effects of sex role stereotypes. The Journal of Politics, 41, 513-524.

Hendricks, C. H. (1928). When a woman governor campaigns. Scribner's Magazine, 81-91.

Henry, S. (1994). The deep divide: Why American women resist equality. Macmillan.

Hershey, M. (1994). The year of the woman? In M. Githens, P. Norris, & J. Lovensuski, Different roles, different voices. New York: Harper Collins.

Herzog, H. (1998). More than a looking glass: Women in Israeli local politics and the media. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 3, 26-47.

Hitchon, J. C., Chang, C., & Harris, R. (1997). Should women emote: Perceptual bias and opinion change in response to political ads for candidates of different genders. Political Communication, 14, 49-69.

Huddy, L. (1997). Feminists and feminism in the news. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 183-204). New York, Oxford University Press.

Huddy, L. (1994). The political significance of voters’ gender stereotypes. Research in Micropolitics, 4, 169-193.

Huddy, L, & Terkildsen, N. (1993). The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 503-525.

Huddy, L, & Terkildsen, N. (1993). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37, 119-147.

Iyengar, S., Valentio, N. A., Ansolabehere, S., & Simon, A. F. (1997). Running as women: Gender stereotyping in political campaigns. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 77-). New York, Oxford University Press.

Jamieson, K. H. (1995). Beyond the double bind: Women and leadership. New York: Oxford University Press.

Johnston, A, & White, A. B. (1994). Communication styles and female candidates: A study of the political advertising during the 1986 elections. Journalism Quarterly, 71, 321-329.

Kahn, K. F. (1996). The political consequences of being a woman: How stereotypes influence the content and impact of statewide campaigns. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Kahn, K. F. (1994). The distorted mirror: Press coverage of women candidates for statewide office. The Journal of Politics, 56, 154-173.

Kahn, K. F. (1994). Does gender make a difference? An experimental examination of sex stereotypes and press patterns in statewide campaigns. American Journal of Political Science, 38, 162-195.

Kahn, K. F. (1993). Gender differences in campaign messages: The political advertisements of men and women candidates for U.S. Senate. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 481-502..

Kahn, K. F. (1992). Does being male help? An investigation of the effects of candidate gender and campaign coverage on evaluations of U. S. Senate candidates. The Journal of Politics, 54, 497-517.

Kahn, K. F., & Goldenberg, E. N. (1991). Women candidates in the news: An examination of gender differences in U. S. Senate campaign coverage. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55, 180-199.

Kahn, K. F., & Gordon, A. (1997). How women campaign for the U. S. senate: Substance and strategy. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 59-76). New York, Oxford University Press.

Kaid, L. L., & Holtz-Bacha, C. (2000). Gender reactions to TV political broadcasts. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 5, 17-29.

Kaid, L. L., Myers, S. L., Pipps, V., & Hunter, J. (1984). Sex role perceptions and televised advertising: Comparing male and female candidates. Women & Politics, 4, 41-53.

Kamier, W. (1992, July). Crashing the locker room. The Atlantic, 270, 58-68,70.

Kaml, S. S. (2000). The fusion of populist and feminine styles in the rhetoric of Ann Richards. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 59-81). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kaptur, M. (1996). Women of Congress: A twentieth-century odyssey. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Kelber, M. (Ed.) (1994). Woman and government: New Ways to political power. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kelley, C. E. (2001). The rhetoric of first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton: Crisis management discourse. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kennedy, R. S., & O'Shields, G. H. (1983). We shall be heard: Women Speakers in America, 1928-present. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Kenski, K. (2000). Women and political knowledge during the 2000 primaries. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 572, 26-28.

Kern, M. (1987, December). Running in 1988: Using the media to surmount stereotypes about women candidates. Women's Campaign Research Fund, Washington, D. C..

Kern, M., & Edley, P. P. (1994). Women candidates going public: The 30-second format. Argumentation and Advocacy. .

Kern, M., & Just, M. (1997). A gender gap among viewers? In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 99-112). New York, Oxford University Press.

Kirshenbaum, G. (1996/March/April). Why all but one woman senator voted against welfare. Ms. Magazine, 16-19.

Koch, J. W. (1999). Candidate gender and assessments of Senate candidates. Social Science Quarterly, 80, 84-96.

Koch, J. (1997). Candidate gender and women's psychological engagement in politics. American Politics Quarterly, 25, 118-.

Kohut, A, & Parker, K. (1997). Talk radio and gender politics. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 221-234). New York, Oxford University Press.

Klotz, R.; & Broome, A. ( 1998). Discussion of Women's Issues in the 1996 Internet Campaign. Women & Politics, 1998, 19, 67-87.

Krauss, W. R. (1974). Political implications of gender roles: A review of the literature. American Political Science Review, 68, 1706-1723.

Lake, C. (1995, Oct./Nov.). Gender gap Politics: The Democratic puzzle. Campaigns and Elections, 16, 23-4, 69.

Lake, C., DiVall, L, & Iyengar, S. (1997). Women as political candidates: Was 1992 the "Year of the Woman"? in S. Iyengar & R. Reeves (Eds.) Do the media govern? Politicians, voters, and reporters in America (pp. 165-170). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage.

Ladd, E. C. (1997). Media framing of the gender gap. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 113-128). New York, Oxford University Press.

Lansing, J. (1991). Campaigning for Office: A woman runs. :R&E Publishers.

Lansing J. (1991). 101 campaign tips for women and their staffs. :R&E Publishers.

Lansing, M. (1974). The American woman: Voter and activist. In J. Jaquette (Ed.), Woman in politics. New York: Wiley & Sons.

Larson, S. G. (2001). "Running as Women"? A comparison of female and male Pennsylvania Assembly candidates' campaign borochures. Women and Politics, 22, 107-124.

Leeper, M. S. (1990). The impact of prejudice on female candidates: An experimental look at voter inference. American Politics Quarterly, 19, 248-261.

Lee, T. M. L. (2001). Feminism, postmoderism, and the politicis of representation. Women and Politics, 22, 35-57.

Levander, C. R. (1998). Voices of the nation: Women and public speech in nineteenth-century American literature and culture. Cambirdge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

List, K. K. (1985). Two party papers' political coverage of women in the new republic. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2, 152-165.

Lovenduski, J., & Norris, P. (Ed.) (1994). Gender and political parties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mandel, R. B. (1983). In the running: The new woman candidate. Boston: Beacon Press.

Manza, J., & Brooks, C. (1998). The gender gap in U.S. Elections: when? Why? Implications? American Journal of Sociology, 103, 1235-1266.

Mansbridge, J. J. (1985). Myth and reality: The ERA and the gender gap in the 1980 election. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49, 164-178.

Marshall, B. D., & Mayhead, M. A. (2000). The changing face of the governorship. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 1-14). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Marshall, B. D., & Mayhead, M. A. (Eds.) (2000). Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors. Praeger.

Marshall, S. (1996). Marilyn vs. Hillary: Women’s place in new right politics. Women and Politics, , 55-75.

Martin, J. (1999) the recruitment of women to cabinet and subcabinet posts. Western Political Quarterly, , 161-173.

Martin, M. (1999). The almanac of women and minorities in American politics. Westview Press.

Masters, R. D., & Carlotti, S.J. (1994). Gender differences in responses to political leaders. In L. Ellis (Ed.), Social stratification and socioeconomic inequality, Vol. II. (pp. 13-26). Boulder, CO: Praeger.

Mayhead, M. A., & Marshall, B. D. (2000). Re-visioning and re-framing political boundaries: Barbara Roberts' response to Oregon's budget crisis. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 83-98). Westport, CT: Praeger.

McCain, T. A., & Koch, N.S. (1985). Gender differences in political communication. In K. R. Sanders, L. L. Kaid, & D. Nimmo (Eds.), Political Communication Yearbook - 1984 (pp. 183-210). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

McCormick, K., & Williams, L. (1994). Gender gap a major factor in a majority of races in 1994. Center for the American Women in Politics News and Notes, 10, 7-15.

McDermott, M. J. (1997). Voting cues in low-information elections: Candidate gender as a social information variable in contemporary U.S. elections. American Journal of political Science, 41, 270-283.

Merron, J., & Gaddy, G. D. (1986). Editorial endorsements and news play: Bias in coverage of Ferraro's finances. Journalism Quarterly, 63, 127-137.

Mezey, S. G. (1994). Increasing the number of women in office: Does it matter? In E. A. Cook,, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.), The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 255-270). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Miller, G. (2001). Newspaper coverage and gender: An analysis of the 1996 Illinois state legistlative house district races. Women and Politics, 22, 83-100.

Miller, J. L. (1996). Dynamics of political advertisements, news coverage, and candidate gender: A content analysis of the campaign messages of the 1990 and 1994 California and Texas Gubernatorial elections. Unpublished doctoral dissertatoin, University of Oklahoma.

Miller, S. (1997). The woven gender: Made for a woman, but stronger for a man. Southern Communication Journal, 62, 217-228. (George Bush, Jr. vs. Ann Richards, Gov., TX)

Mills, K. (1997). What difference do women journalists make? In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 41-55). New York, Oxford University Press.

Morse, M., Morhier, D., & Almeida, C. (1990). 1990 elections--year of wins for women. Women's Political Times, 15, 3-6.

Motion, J. (1999). Politics as destiny, duty, and devotion. Political Communication, 16, 61-76.

National Women's Political Caucus (1984). Women as candidates in the 1984 congressional elections: A post election survey of five congressional districts. Alexandria, VA: Cooper and Secrest Associates.

Newman, J. (1994). Perception and reality: A study comparing the success of men and women candidates. Washington, DC: National Women’s Political Caucus.

Newman, B. L., & Sheth, J. N. (1984). The "gender gap" in voter attitudes and behavior: Some advertising implications. Journal of Advertising, 13, 4-16.

Niven, D., & Zilber, J. (2001). Do women and men in congress cultivate different images? Evidence from congressional web sites. Political Communication, 18, 395-405.

Norrander, B., Bibliography: Gender Gap and Women in Electoral Politics, http://www.u.arizona.edu/~norrande/GGLIST-1.htm

Norrander, B. (1999). The evolution of the gender gap. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 566-576.

Norris, P. (1997). Introduction: Women, media, and politics. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 1-18). New York, Oxford University Press.

Norris, P. (1997). Women leaders worldwide: A splash of color in the photo op. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 149-165). New York, Oxford University Press.

Norris, P. (1994). The impact of electoral system on election of women to national legislatures. In M. Githens, P. Norris, & J. Lovenduski (Eds.). Different roles, different voices, New York: Harper Collins.

O'Conner, K, Nye, B, & Van Assendelft, L. (1996). Wives in the White House: The political influence of firs ladies. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 26, 835-853.

Okin, S. M. (1992). Women in western political thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Orum, A. M., Cohen, R.S., Grasmuck, S., & Orum, A.W. (1974). Sex, socialization, and politics. American Sociological Review, 39, 197-209.

Paolino, P. (1995). Group-salient issues and group representation: Support for women candidates in the 1992 senate elections. American Journal of Political Science, 68, 294-313.

Parry-Giles, S. J. (2001). Political authenticity, television news, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. In R. P, Hart and B. H. Sparrow (Eds.), Politics, discourse, and American society: New agendas (pp. 211-227). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc.

Parry-Giles, S. J. (2000). Mediating Hillary Rodham Clinton: Television news practices and image-making in the postmodern age. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 17, 205-226.

Parry-Giles, S. J. (1998). Image-based politics, feminism an the consequences of their convergence. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 15, 460--468.

Parry-Giles, S. J., & Blair, D. M. (2002). The rise of the rhetorical First Lady: Politics, gender ideology, and women's voice, 1789-2002. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 5, 565-600.

Parry-Giles, T., & Parry-Giles, S. J. (1997). Political scopophilia, presidential campaigning, and the intimacy of American politics. Communication Studies, 47, 191-205.

Parry-Giles, S. J., & Parry-Giles, T. (1996). Gendered politics and presidential image construction: A reassessment of the "Feminine Style." Communication Monographs, 63, 337-353.

Perkins, S. J., & Smith, G. L. (1994). The gender gap? Male and female reactions to the 1992 presidential debate. In D. B. Carlin and M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 175-186). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Phalen, P. F., & Algan, E. (2001). (Ms)taking context for content: Framing the Fourth World Conference on Women. Political Communication, 18, 301-319.

Pierce, J. B. (2000). Portrait of a "Governor Lady": An examination of Nellie Tayloe Ross's autobiographical political advocacy. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 31-43). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Plutzer, E. & Zipp, J. R. (1996). Identity politics, partisanship, and voting for women candidates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 60. 30-57.

Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1987). Is the "presidential image" reserved for males? Sex-role stereotypes and the 1984 presidential election. Psychological Reports, 61, 491-495.

Proctor, D. E., Aden, R., & Japp, P. (1998). Gender/issue interaction in political identity making: Nebraska’s women vs. Woman gubernatorial campaign. Central States Speech Journal, 39, 190-203.

Procter, D. E., & Schenck-Hamlin, W. J. (1996). Forms and variations in negative political advertising. Communication Research Reports, 13, 147-156.

Proctor, D. E., Schenck-Hamlin, W., & Haase, K. A. (1994). On the attack: Gender differences in negative political advertising. Women & Politics, 14, 1-22.

Ragan, S. L., Bystrom, D. G., Kaid, L. L., & Beck, C. S. (1996). The lynching of language: Gender, politics and power in the Hill-Thomas Hearings. Champaign, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press.

Rajoppi, J. (1993). Women in office: Getting there and staying there. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

Ramsey, E. M. (2000). Inventing citizens during World War I: Suffrage cartoons in The Woman Citizen. Western Journal of Communication, 64, 113-147.

Randall, V. & Waylen, G. (Eds.) (1998). Gender, politics and the state. Routledge.

Richardson, R., & Moss, C. (1995). "Just between you and me": "Feminine style" and "feminine coze" in Connie Chung’s interview with the parents of Newt Gingrich. Speaker and Gavel, 32, 26-37.

Rinehart. S. T. (1992). Gender consciousness and politics. New York: Routledge.

Rinehart, S. T., & Perkins, J. (1989). The intersection of gender politics and religious beliefs. Political Behavior, 11, 33-56.

Robertson, T., Froemling, K., Wells, S., & McCraw, S. (1999). Sex, lives, and videotape: An analysis of gender in campaign advertisements. Communication Quarterly, 47. 333-341.

Robinson, G. & Saint-Jean. A. (1991). Women politicians and their media coverage: A generational analysis. In Women in Canadian politics: Toward equality in representation, K. Megyery (Ed.) Vol. 6 of Research Studies for the Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing. Toronto; Dundurn Press.

Rogers, M. B. (1993). Women in electoral politics: A slow steady climb. Social Policy, , 14-22.

Romney, R. & Harrison, B. (1988). Momentum: Women in American Politics Now. New York: Crown Publishers.

Roper Center (1996, Aug.-Sept.). Men, Women, and politics: All the data you've wanted (but could never find). Public perspective: A Roper Center review of public opinion and polling, 7, 8-33.

Rosenberg, S. W., Kahn, S., & Tran, T. (1991). Creating a political image: Shaping appearance and manipulating the vote. Political Behavior,
13, 345-367. [Women candidates]

Rosenwasser, S. M., & Dean, N. G. (1989). Gender role and political office: Effects of perceived masculinity/femininity of candidate and political office. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 77-85.

Rosenwasser, S. M., Rogers, R. ., Fling, S., Silvers-Pickens, K. (1987). Attitudes toward women and men in politics: Perceived male and female candidate competencies and participant personalities characteristics. Political Psychology, 8, 191-200.

Rosenwasser, S. M., & Seale, J. (1988). Attitudes toward a hypothetical male or female candidate-a research note. Political Psychology, 9, 591-598.

Roswell, M. J. (2000). Helping women run and win: Feminist groups, candidate recruitmetn and training. Women and Politics, 21, 101-116.

Rozell, M. J., & Wilcox, C. (1998). A GOP gender gap? Motivations, policy, and candidate choice. Women & Politics, 19, 91-106.

Rule, W. & Zimmerman, J. F. (1992). United States electoral system: Their impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishers.

Ryan. M. P. (1992). Gender and public access: Women's politics in nineteenth-century America. In C. Calhoun (Ed.). Habermas and the public sphere (pp. 143-163). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sackett, V. (1984). Color me political: Changing fashions in women's magazines. Public Opinion, 7, 12-15, 46-47.

Saint-German, M. A. (1989). Does their difference made a difference? The impact of women on public policy in the Arizona legislature. Social Science Quarterly, 956-968.

Sapiro, V. (1981). When are interests interesting? The problem of political representation of women. American Political Science Review, 73, 701-716.

Sapiro, V. (1982). If U. S. Senator Baker were a woman: An experimental study of candidate images. Political Psychology, 61-83.

Sapiro, V. (1983). The political integration of women: Roles, socialization, and politics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Sapiro, V. (1993).The political uses of symbolic women: An essay in honor of Murray Edelman. Political Communication, 10, 141-154.

Sapiro, V. (1994, April). Gender in the 1992 electorate. Center for the American woman and politics conference, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.

Schroedel, J. R., & Snyder, B. (1994). Patty Murray: The mom in tennis shoes goes to the senate. In E.A. Cook,, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.), The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 49-70). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Schultz, J. D., Van Assendaeft, L., & Jurian, G. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of women in American politics. Oryx Press.

Shabad, G., & Andersen, K. (1979). Candidate evaluations by men and women. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 18-35.

Shapiro, R. Y., & Mahajan, H. (1986). Gender differences in policy preferences: A summary of trends from the 1960s to the 1980s. Public Opinion Quarterly, 50, 42-61.

Sheckels, T. F. (1997). The rhetorical use of double-voiced discourse and feminine style: The U. S. senate debate over the impact of Tailhook ’91 on Admiral Frank B. Kelso II’s retirement rank. Southern Communication Journal, 63, 56-68.

Sheckels, T. F. (1994). Mikulski vs. Chavez for the senate from Maryland in 1986 and the "rules" for attack politics. Communication Quarterly, 42, 311-326.

Sheeler, K. H. (2000). Christine Todd Whitman and the ideology of the New Jersey governorship. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 99-122). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Sheeler, K. H. (2000). Marginalizing metaphors of the feminine. In B. D. Marshall & M. A. Mayhead (Eds.) Navigating boundaries: The rhetoric of women governors pp. 15-30). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Sigelman, L., & Welch, S. (1984). Race, gender, and opinion toward Black and female presidential candidates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48, 467-475.

Silver, D. (1986). A comparison of newspaper coverage of male and female officials in Michigan. Journalism Quarterly, 63, 144-149.

Slagell, A. R. (2001). The rhetorical structure of Frances E. Willard's campaign for woman suffrage, 1876-1896. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 4, 1-23.

Smith, K. B. (1997). When all’s fair: Signs of parity in media coverage of female candidates. Political Communication, 14, 71-82.

Smith, K. B. (1996). Rosalynn Carter. In L. L. Gould (Ed.), American First Ladies: their lives and their legacy (pp. 556-582). New York: Garland Press.

Smith-Howell, D. (1995). Review essay: Gender and political messages. Political Communication, 12, 343-345.

Sreberny, A., van Zoonen, L. (Eds.) (1999). Gender, politics and communication. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Sreberny-Mohammadi, A, & Ross, K. (1996). Women MPs and the media: Representing the body politics. Parliamentary Affairs, 49, 103-115.

Sullivan, D. B. (1998). Images of a breakthrough woman candidate: Dianne Feinstein's 1990, 1992, and 1994 campaign television advertisements. Women's Studies in Communication, 21, 6-26.

Sullivan, P. A. (1993). Women’s discourse and political communication: A case study of congressperson Patricia Schroeder. Western Journal of Communication, 57, 530-545.

Sullivan, P. A. (1989). The 1984 vice-presidential debate: A case study of female and male framing in political campaigns. Communication Quarterly, 37, 329-343.

Sullivan, P. A., & Turner, L. H. (1996). From the margins to the center: Contemporary women and political communication. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Theodore, A. (2002). "A right to Speak on the subject": The U.S. women's antiremoval petition campaign, 1829-1931. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 5, 601-624.

There's room at the top: Woman, power & campaigns. Campaigns and Elections, 8, 16+.

Tolleson-Rinehard, S. (1994). The California senate races: A case study in the gendered paradoxes of politics. In E. A. Cook,, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.), The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 25-48). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Tolleson-Rinehard, S. (1992). Gender consciousness and politics. New York: Routledge.

Trafton, B. M. (1984). Women winning: How to run for office. Boston: Harvard Common Press.

Trent, J. S., & Sabourin, T. (1993). Sex still counts: Women’s use of televised advertising during the decade of the 80s. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 21, 21-40.

Trevor, M. C. (1999). Political socialization, party identification, and gender gap. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 62-89.

Uhlaner, C. J., & Schlozman, K. L. (1986). Candidate gender and congressional campaign receipts. The Journal of Politics, 48, 30-50.

Valentino, N. A. (1999). Crime news and the priming of racial attitudes during evaluations of the president. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 293-320.

Van Zoonen, L. (1998). "Finally, I have my mother back": Politicians and their families in popular culture. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 3, 48-64.

Vavrus, M. (1998). Working the Senate from the outside in: The mediate construction of a feminist political campaign. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 15, 213-235.

Wadsworth, A. J., Patterson, R., Cullers, G., Malcomb, D., Lamirand, L., and Kaid, L. L. (1987). "Masculine" vs. "feminine" strategies in political ads: Implications for female candidates. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 15, 77-94.

Walkosz, B. J. (1966), A micro level analysis of communication strategies utilized in the television advertisements of male and female candidates. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Arizona).

Weaver, D. (1997). Women as journalists. In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 21-40). New York, Oxford University Press.

Welch, S. (1977). Women as political animals? A test of some explanations for male-female political participation differences. American Journal of Political Science, 21, 711-730.

Welch, S., Ambrosius, M. M., Clark, J., & Darcy, R. (1985). The effect of candidate gender on electoral outcome in state legislative races. Western Political Quarterly, 38, 464-475.

Welch, S., & Donley T. (1998). The effects of candidate gender on voting for loco office in England. British Journal of Political Science, 18, 273-286.

Wicker, M. L., Jewell, M., & Duke, L. L. (1996). Women in congress. In L. Lovelace Duke (Ed.), Women in politics: outsiders or insiders? (pp. 35-46.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilcox, C. (1994). Why was 1992 the "Year of the Woman"? Explaining women's gains in 1992. In E. A. Cook, S. Thomas, & C.Wilcox (Eds.). The Year of the Woman: Myths and realities (pp. 1-24). Boulder: Westview Press.

Williams, B. (9179). Breakthrough: Women in politics. New York: Walker and Co..

Williams, L. (1998). Voter reactions to women candidates. In S. Thomas and C. Wilcox (Eds.), Women and elective office: Past, present, and future.

Williams, W. (1994). Political advertising in the "year of the woman": Did X mark the spot? In E. A. Cook, S. Thomas, & C. Wilcox (Eds.) The year of the woman; Myths and Realities (pp. 197-215). Boulder, CO: Westwood Press.

Winfield, B. H. (1997). The first lady, political power, and the media: Who elected her anyway? In P. Norris (Ed). Women, media, and politics (pp. 166-179). New York, Oxford University Press.

Winfield, B. H. (1997). The making of an image: Hillary Rodham Clinton and American journalists. Political Communication, 14, 241-253.

Winfield, B. H. (1997). Introductory note (A symposium: Hillary Rodham Clinton’s image: Content, control, and cultural politics. Political Communication, 14, 221-224.

Wish, D. (1986). Reinterpreting the gender gap. Public Opinion Quarterly, 50, 316-330.

Witt, L., Paget, K. M, & Mathews, G. (1994). Running as a woman: Gender and power in American politics. New York: Free Press.

Yum, J. O., & Kendall, K. E. (1995). Sex differences in political communication during presidential campaigns. Communication Quarterly, 43, 131-141.

Zgorski, L. (1991). Women candidates a 3:2 favorite. Campaign Magazine, 5, 1, 26.

Zipp, J. F., & Plutzer, E. (1985). Gender differences in voting for female candidates: Evidence from the 1982 election. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48, 629-638